Striving for long term sustainability - Is it time we changed our approach to animal health in low- and middle-income countries?

Animal health and agricultural productivity in low- and middle-income countries have been the focus of research for development (R4D) projects for decades, with varying levels of success when considering the long-term sustainability of interventions. Many of these projects have been funded, designed and implemented by researchers from high income countries, and therefore risk neglecting the cultural nuances and complex country histories that can influence their success. This opinion piece suggests three broad recommendations: (1) implementing culturally congruent practices to improve disease control and prevention practices at the village level; (2) promoting public-private partnerships to improve control of transboundary animal diseases; and (3) improving national animal health and veterinary services and their governance to improve disease surveillance, control and prevention. Development researchers need to consider implementing these approaches in future projects to improve the suitability and sustainability of interventions and acknowledging the current technical capacity of host countries. Foreign donor organisations need to ensure their funding guidelines and reporting requirements allow for these recommendations to be adequately implemented.

Incidence, cause, outcome and possible risk factors associated with facial nerve paralysis in dogs in a Sydney population (2001-2016): a retrospective study.

OBJECTIVE: This study aims to assess the incidence and causes of facial nerve paralysis (FNP) in dogs in the Sydney region. Its outcome and possible risk factors are investigated to prognosticate and aid design of diagnostic and treatment plans. DESIGN: Retrospective case study. METHODS: Client-owned dogs presented to the University Veterinary Teaching Hospital, Sydney (UVTHS), between 2001 and 2016 with FNP were included (n = 122). The incidence of each cause of FNP was investigated. A reference population of noncases seen at the UVTHS during the same time period was used to study the association between idiopathic facial nerve paralysis (IFNP) and gender, age and breed. RESULTS: IFNP (29.5%) was the most common diagnosis. Male dogs (odds ratio [OR], 2.3) had increased odds of IFNP compared with female dogs. Age was a significant risk factor for both the occurrence of FNP and IFNP. There was higher occurrence of IFNP among middle-aged dogs (5-13 years) and reduced risk in juvenile dogs (less than 2 years). Cavalier King Charles Spaniels were over-represented for FNP (OR, 6.9) and IFNP (OR, 17.5). For IFNP, 6 of 16 dogs with known follow-up showed definitive resolution within 3 years of diagnosis. Concurrent vestibular signs were common in dogs with middle/inner ear abnormality and intracranial disease; and were also seen in 50% of dogs with IFNP. CONCLUSION: The results of this study demonstrate statistical predilections in age, gender and breed for IFNP. Guarded prognosis for recovery should be given to dogs diagnosed with IFNP and supportive management instigated.

Modelling the impact of biosecurity practices on the risk of high pathogenic avian influenza outbreaks in Australian commercial chicken farms.

As of 2018, Australia has experienced seven outbreaks of highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) in poultry since 1976, all of which involved chickens. There is concern that increases in free-range farming could heighten HPAI outbreak risk due to the potential for greater contact between chickens and wild birds that are known to carry low pathogenic avian influenza (LPAI). We use mathematical models to assess the effect of a shift to free-range farming on the risk of HPAI outbreaks of H5 or H7 in the Australian commercial chicken industry, and the potential for intervention strategies to reduce this risk. We find that a shift of 25% of conventional indoor farms to free-range farming practices would result in a 6-7% increase in the risk of a HPAI outbreak. Current practices to treat water are highly effective, reducing the risk of outbreaks by 25-28% compared to no water treatment. Halving wild bird presence in feed storage areas could reduce risk by 16-19% while halving wild bird access of potential bridge-species to sheds could reduce outbreak risk by 23-25%, and relatively small improvements in biosecurity measures could entirely compensate for increased risks due to the increasing proportion of free-range farms in the industry. The short production cycle and cleaning practices for chicken meat sheds considerably reduce the risk that an introduced low pathogenic avian influenza virus is maintained in the flock until it is detected as HPAI through increased mortality of chickens. These findings help explain HPAI outbreak history in Australia and suggest practical changes in biosecurity practices that could reduce the risk of future outbreaks.

Associations of body condition score with health conditions related to overweight and obesity in cats.

OBJECTIVES: To explore the associations of cat body condition score with various health conditions, such as diabetes mellitus, dermatological conditions and hypertension, that have been shown to relate to overweight and/or obesity in cats, dogs or humans. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Electronic patient records between January 3, 2005 and June 21, 2015 were obtained from a cat-focused primary accession clinic in metropolitan Sydney where the body condition score of cats was routinely evaluated. Binomial logistic regression modelling was conducted to investigate the associations, after adjusting for age, sex and breed, between 21 health conditions and body condition score recorded on a 9-point scale. RESULTS: Fourteen of the 21 health conditions examined showed significant associations with an increased body condition score, particularly those of 7 and above. These were dermatological conditions, atopic dermatitis, musculoskeletal conditions, arthritis, hypertension, respiratory conditions, asthma, oral conditions, diarrhoea, general and lower urinary tract conditions, ophthalmic conditions, diabetes mellitus and allergic conditions. Additionally, cats with body condition score of 8 or 9 had significantly higher odds for gastrointestinal conditions and upper urinary tract conditions when compared with cats with body condition score of 5. CLINICAL SIGNIFICANCE: As far as we know, this is the first study reporting positive associations of high body condition score with atopic dermatitis, hypertension, asthma, diarrhoea, ophthalmic conditions and allergic conditions in cats. A large number of positive associations between health conditions and high body condition score indicates that excess fat mass should be given a greater emphasis in preventive health care for cats.

Understanding animal health communication networks among smallholder livestock producers in Australia using stakeholder analysis.

Smallholder livestock producers are a diverse population with wide ranging motivations for keeping livestock. The biosecurity risk posed by smallholders has been the subject of much conjecture, with comparisons often made between the level of animal health and biosecurity knowledge of smallholders, versus that of commercial livestock producers. This research aimed to gain a better understanding of current knowledge of smallholder production in Australia, particularly in relation to biosecurity and emergency animal disease, and to investigate the relationships that exist between smallholders and the organisations and individuals from which they seek information, assistance and support. Engagement with stakeholders is an important component of an effective biosecurity communication strategy as the dissemination of biosecurity related information from a single source cannot be expected to satisfy the needs of such a broad ranging population. A qualitative study involving a review of literature, semi-structured interviews with government and non-government stakeholders and the development of smallholder and stakeholder influence and interest grids was undertaken. This paper forms part of a broader mixed methods research project among smallholders. Results from the stakeholder analysis showed variation in the parameters used to define smallholders and in the level of stakeholder involvement. Smallholders identified breeding consultants, other producers, private veterinarians and family, friends and colleagues as having a significant to high level of interest and potential to influence their practices. Government agencies were perceived to only have some level of interest but significant influence. Industry stakeholders and rural suppliers were positioned in the quadrant reflecting perceived low levels of interest and influence. The interest and influence grid developed from stakeholder's perspectives demonstrate a clustering around the mid points for both interest and influence, with the exception of those from industry who described low levels of interest and influence. Commonwealth and State government stakeholders reported a higher level of interest than influence. Veterinarians, both government and private, reported some to significant levels of interest and influence. In contrast to the results from the smallholder grid, rural suppliers reported relatively high levels of both interest and influence. The current study demonstrates that to maximise the effectiveness of biosecurity communication, there is a need for government and industry organisations to further engage with all stakeholders involved with smallholders.

Orbital implant infection by Corynebacterium amycolatum.

Corynebacterium amycolatum is a saprophyte gram-positive bacillus of the skin flora. It has been linked to diverse infections in immunocompromised patients and also of different types of prostheses. However, to our knowledge, there are no reports on its ability to produce ocular infections or to grow over alloplastic materials for orbital surgery. We present a case of orbital implant exposure including pure isolation of C. amycolatum. The patient was referred for discharge in his socket. After removal of the artificial eye, a large area of implant exposure and signs of chronic infection were observed. A microbiological sample was taken by rubbing the implant with a sterile swab. The sample was cultured and C. amycolatum was identified by phenotypical characterization. Other microbial species were not isolated. Besides being able to adhere to cardiac and joint devices, this case shows that C. amycolatum is a potential infectious agent of orbital prostheses. Pure isolation of C. amycolatum in an ocular sample is extremely rare and suggests an etiological role of this microorganism in an ocular or periocular infection.

Social network analysis of the movement of poultry to and from live bird markets in Bali and Lombok, Indonesia.

Highly pathogenic avian influenza H5N1 has resulted in large losses to the Indonesian poultry sector. Evidence suggests that live bird markets (LBMs) play an important role in the epidemiology of the disease. Knowledge of the frequency and type of contact between the various poultry market players should allow animal health authorities to develop a better understanding of factors influencing virus transmission between Indonesian villages. A questionnaire-based cross-sectional survey was conducted in 17 LBMs on the neighbouring Indonesian islands of Bali and Lombok to investigate the movement patterns of poultry to and from markets. Using social network analyses, a network of contacts was created for each island from a total of 413 live poultry traders and 134 customers. Individual nodes with high degree and/or betweenness were identified in each network. The Lombok network was more dense and connected than the Bali network indicating that disease transmission would be more efficient in the Lombok network. Our findings indicate that whilst live poultry are typically transported over relatively short distances of approximately 10 km, it is not uncommon for traders and customers to travel in excess of 100 km to buy or sell poultry, which may facilitate the spread of disease over a large geographical area. This study highlights the different roles markets play in poultry movement networks and their potential for disease dissemination. The identification of highly influential market nodes allows authorities to target HPAI surveillance activities to locations where disease is more likely to be present, which is crucial in low-resource settings.

Are Village Animal Health Workers Able to Assist in Strengthening Transboundary Animal Disease Control in Cambodia?

A cross-sectional survey of 445 Village Animal Health Workers (VAHWs) from 19 provinces in Cambodia was undertaken. The aim was to establish their levels of training, farm visit frequency, reasons for visits and disease reporting practices, enabling the strengths and weaknesses of the VAHW system in Cambodia to be determined, in providing both a fee-based smallholder livestock clinical service and a government partnership in transboundary animal disease (TAD) surveillance and control. The study used 'guided group interviews' and identified that VAHWs had good contact with farmers with 61.5% making more than one farm visit daily. However, incomes from services remained low, with 45% VAHWs obtaining between 20 and 40% of their household income from VAHW activities. VAHWs recorded relatively high rates of disease reporting, with 72% claiming they report diseases immediately and 74% undertaking monthly reporting to veterinary authorities. Logistic regression analysis revealed VAHW contact frequency with district and/or provincial officers was associated with more VAHW farm visits, and frequency of VAHW visits to smallholder farms was positively associated with average monthly expenditure on animal medication and equipment. This suggests that increased veterinary extension to VAHWs and access to veterinary equipment, vaccines and drugs may further increase VAHW-farmer engagement. VAHWs provide an accessible, market-based, animal health 'treatment and reporting' service linked to livestock smallholders across Cambodia. However, for improved TAD prevention and more efficient control of outbreaks, research that assesses provision of an animal health 'preventive-based' business model is urgently needed to reduce both the costs to farmers and the risks to the economy due to foot-and-mouth disease and other TADs in Cambodia.

Lesión tumoral de reciente aparición en paciente inmunodeprimido / New-Onset Mass in an Immunosuppressed Patient

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Adverse reactions in a population of Sydney pet rabbits vaccinated against rabbit calicivirus.

OBJECTIVE: To determine the general clinical presentation and incidence of adverse reactions to Cylap® RCD vaccinations, of a nature serious enough for veterinary attention, in a Sydney population of pet rabbits. DESIGN: A retrospective survey using hospital databases. METHODS: Nine veterinary hospitals in Sydney participated in a database search for the number of rabbits vaccinated within a 2-year period. The hospitals involved had an identified interest in rabbit medicine and included general, specialist and teaching hospitals. Details of the rabbit, vaccination event and any possible reaction were collected and analysed. RESULTS: Of 933 events recorded in 705 rabbits, 17 (1.8%) adverse reactions were observed. Of the adverse events, local injection site reactions (alopecia, abrasions and scabbing) were most common. Other reactions, including systemic signs of gastrointestinal tract stasis, lethargy and forelimb lameness, were also documented. Overall, rabbits presented for vaccination were mostly male (57.7%) and desexed (71.3%), with an average age of 28.1 months (median 19.0, range 1.4-149.8 months) and an average weight at first vaccination of 2.12 kg (median 2.08 kg, range 0.18-5.6 kg). A significant association between increasing age and decreased incidence of adverse events was demonstrated (P value, 0.038). CONCLUSIONS: The benefits of vaccination against RCV outweigh the risks of an adverse reaction occurring. Data from this study show that adverse reactions occur infrequently, are generally mild and self-resolving, and decrease in incidence with increasing age. These results are similar to previous field research on wild rabbit colonies and reports from government and industry.

Double Lateral Flap: A New Technique for Lower Eyelid Reconstruction Alternative to the Tenzel Procedure.

BACKGROUND: The final esthetic result is a common concern of patients with eyelid tumors, especially young patients and those with tumors affecting the medial edge of the lower eyelid. METHODS: The procedure herein described combines two lateral flaps: one tarsoconjunctival and the other from the periosteum. The first step is removal of the tumor lesion. Preseptal dissection is then performed through a subciliary incision on both the lateral and medial halves of the eyelid up to the orbital rim. Next, the lateral canthal tendon, lateral attachment of the orbital septum, capsulopalpebral fascia, and conjunctiva are cut. This allows the medial displacement of the tarsoconjunctival flap, which is sutured to the defect area. The second flap, a periosteal strip, is used to reconstruct the tarsus and lateral canthal tendon, providing firm support for the posterior lamella. The orbicularis muscle is anchored to the orbital rim, and the skin of the lower eyelid is directly sutured to the subciliary incision and periosteal strip. RESULTS: The author successfully carried out this procedure on nine patients. None of the patients developed ocular irritation or postoperative epiphora. CONCLUSIONS: The defects that can be repaired by this technique are equivalent in size to those repaired by the Tenzel procedure. Unlike the semicircular flap procedure, this technique allows eyelid reconstruction with no vertical scarring and a smaller lateral incision, and it ensures soft contact between the palpebral rim and surface of the eyeball. This procedure confers an attractive eyelid appearance that may be crucial for some patients. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE V: This journal requires that authors assign a level of evidence to each article. For a full description of these Evidence-Based Medicine ratings, please refer to the Table of Contents or the online Instructions to Authors www.springer.com/00266.

Evaluating the risk of avian influenza introduction and spread among poultry exhibition flocks in Australia.

Some practices undertaken by poultry exhibitors, such as allowing wild birds to contact domestic birds, the high frequency of bird movements and the lack of appropriate isolation for incoming birds, pose a risk for disease introduction and spread. The aim of the current study was to quantitatively assess the probability of introduction of low pathogenic avian influenza (LPAI) viruses from wild waterfowl into poultry exhibition flocks and the subsequent spread to other poultry flocks. Exposure and consequence assessments, using scenario trees and Monte Carlo stochastic simulation modelling, were conducted to identify potential pathways of introduction and spread and calculate the probabilities of these pathways occurring. Input parameters were estimated from two recently conducted cross-sectional studies among poultry exhibitors in Australia (Dusan et al., 2010; Hernández-Jover et al., 2013) and other scientific literature. According to reported practices of poultry exhibitors and the LPAI prevalence in wild birds in Australia, this assessment estimates a median (5-95%) probability of exposure of a bird kept by a poultry exhibitor of 0.004 (0.003-0.005). Due to the higher susceptibility of infection of turkeys and waterfowl, this probability is higher in flocks keeping these bird species than in those keeping chickens or pigeons only. Similarly, once exposure has occurred, establishment of infection and subsequent spread are more likely in those flocks keeping waterfowl and turkeys than in those keeping chicken and pigeons only. Spread through movement of birds is the most likely pathway of spread, followed by contaminated fomites, wild birds and airborne spread. The median probability of LPAI spread through movement of birds in flocks keeping waterfowl and turkeys was estimated to be 0.280 (0.123-0.541) and 0.230 (0.104-0.421), respectively. A lower probability was estimated for chicken (0.087; 0.027-0.202) and pigeon (0.0003; 3.0×10(-5)-0.0008) flocks. The sensitivity analysis indicates that the prevalence of LPAI in wild waterfowl and the probability of contact of domestic birds with wild waterfowl are the most influential parameters on the probability of exposure; while the probability of spread is mostly influenced by the probability of movement of birds and the probability of the exhibitor detecting and reporting LPAI. To minimize the potential risk of AI introduction and spread, poultry exhibitors should prevent contact of domestic birds with wild birds, and implement appropriate biosecurity practices. In addition, adequate extension services are required to improve exhibitors' abilities to recognize diseases and reporting behaviour.

On-farm characteristics and biosecurity protocols for small-scale swine producers in eastern Australia.

Pigs are considered high risk for the introduction and spread of foot and mouth disease (FMD) in Australia. Facilities where animals from different origins are commingled, such as saleyards, pose a high risk for disease spread. Sound on-farm management practices and biosecurity protocols are the first line of defence against a potential on-farm disease outbreak. This study evaluated the practices of 104 producers (vendors who sold pigs and purchasers of live pigs for grow-out) who traded pigs at 6 peri-urban and rural saleyards in eastern Australia. Specifically, management and on-farm biosecurity practices were assessed using an in-depth questionnaire. Univariable and multivariable logistic regression analyses were used to investigate (1) producer associations: producer type, State, motivation to keep pigs, farm type, gender, years having owned pigs, and the acquisition of formal livestock qualifications; and (2) pig associations: herd size, housing, management (husbandry and feeding) practices and biosecurity (including pig movement) practices. Backyard operations (<20 sows) were undertaken by 60.6% of participants, followed by small-scale pig operations (28.8%; 21-100 sows). Few producers (16.3%) reported residing in close proximity (<5 km) to commercial operations; however, less rural producers had neighbouring hobby pig operations within 5 km of their property (P=0.033). Motivation for keeping pigs was significantly associated with a number of biosecurity practices. Producers who kept pigs for primary income were more likely to provide footwear precautions (P=0.007) and ask visitors about prior pig contacts (P=0.004). Approximately 40% of backyard and small-scale producers reported not having any quarantine practices in place for incoming pigs, compared to only 9.1% among larger producers. The main reasons cited for not adopting on-farm biosecurity practices in this study included having no need on their property (43.1%) and a lack of information and support (by the industry and/or authorities; 18.5%). Up to three-quarters of all producers maintained an open breeding herd, regularly introducing new pigs to the main herd. Saleyards are an important source of income for backyard and small-scale producers as well as an important risk factor for the introduction and dissemination of endemic and emerging animal diseases. Differing management and biosecurity practices as well as the motivations of these producers keeping pigs in small numbers and trading pigs at saleyards need to be taken into account in the development of successful biosecurity extension programmes for this sector of the Australian pork industry.

Community preparedness for highly pathogenic Avian influenza on Bali and Lombok, Indonesia.

INTRODUCTION: The Asia-Pacific region is the likeliest location for the next significant outbreak of highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI). Indonesia has experienced HPAI H5N1 outbreaks in poultry and humans each year since 2003 and has had the highest case fatality rate for human cases. The purposes of this study were to capture the knowledge of avian influenza and of poultry-raising practices in two regions of Indonesia and to evaluate the impact and extent of activities undertaken to 2010 through the National Strategic Plan for Avian Influenza Control at the village level. METHODS: A combination of quantitative and qualitative methods was used to investigate the multiple influences on behaviours, decisions and actions taken by poultry-raising households, and by villages and communities, regarding the threat of HPAI. Between June 2010 and May 2011 a structured survey of 400 households was conducted on Lombok and of 402 on Bali, inviting Sector 3 (small-scale independent commercial poultry farms) and Sector 4 (village household) poultry raisers to participate. Focus groups and in-depth interviews were convened with key stakeholders, including livestock and animal health and public health officials, community leaders and villagers. RESULTS: From the focus group and in-depth interviews, it appears that the flow of information through the national HPAI control program has been efficient at the top levels (from national to provincial, then to districts and subdistricts). However, these findings show that effective transmission of information from subdistrict to rural village level and from village leaders to community members has been limited. The degree of community preparedness for HPAI on Bali and Lombok appears minimal. Knowledge of government activities was more extensive at Bali sites, while only limited government programs and activities occurred at the village level on Lombok. Activities conducted by government agencies from provincial to village level were limited in scope and need to be further developed to ensure safe poultry-handling practices and biosecurity measures. On both Bali and Lombok, community respondents knew the signs and symptoms of sick birds but did not differentiate well between HPAI and other bird diseases. On both islands, more than 60% of respondents were reluctant to report sudden deaths of poultry. The lack of a government compensation program for destroyed flocks contributed to this unwillingness to report. CONCLUSIONS: While the Indonesian government's planning efforts for HPAI are commendable, the plan has not been effective, as it depends on the cooperative actions of people with small rural farms who have not been consulted in the development of the plan, have not been adequately instructed on the nature of the plan, and perceive no benefits to themselves from prevention efforts. Context-appropriate mechanisms for communicating zoonotic risk and options for risk mitigation that do not result in net loss to poor households are also needed.

Psoriasiform exfoliative erythroderma induced by golimumab.

Golimumab is a fully human anti-tumour necrosis factor (TNF)-α monoclonal antibody approved for use in the treatment of active rheumatoid arthritis, psoriatic arthritis and ankylosing spondylitis. Psoriasis induced by treatment with anti-TNF drugs is well documented, but to our knowledge, the development of clinical features of psoriasiform exfoliative erythroderma during treatment with golimumab has not been previously described.

Fotosensibilidad por tiazidas / Photosensitivity Due to Thiazides

Las tiazidas son diuréticos que se comenzaron a usar en la década de 1950 y su uso está muy extendido en la actualidad. Poco después de su introducción se describieron las primeras reacciones de fotosensibilidad, aunque han sido descritas solo de forma infrecuente con posterioridad. Revisamos los casos de fotosensibilidad por tiazidas publicados hasta diciembre de 2011. Encontramos 62 casos, de los cuales 33 eran mujeres y 29 varones. La forma de presentación más común fue con lesiones eccematosas fotodistribuidas. La hidroclorotiazida fue el agente causal más frecuente. Solo algunos casos publicados recogen el resultado del estudio fotobiológico. En la mayoría el fototest mostró un respuesta alterada a ultravioleta A (UVA) sola y a UVA + ultravioleta B (UVB). En algunos casos el fototest fue normal y solo el fotoparche estaba alterado. El diagnóstico de fotosensibilidad por tiazidas requiere un alto índice de sospecha. De forma ideal debería confirmarse mediante estudio fotobiológico

Thiazides are widely used diuretics that first became available in the 1950s. The first reports of photosensitivity reactions to thiazides were published shortly after the introduction of these drugs, but few cases have been described since. We review all the cases of photosensitivity due to thiazides published up to December 2011. We found 62 cases, 33 in women and 29 in men. The most common presentation was eczematous lesions in a photodistributed pattern, and the most common causative agent was hydrochlorothiazide. The results of photobiological studies were published in only some of the cases reviewed. In most cases, phototesting revealed an abnormal response to UV-A alone or to both UV-A and UV-B. In some cases, the results of phototesting were normal and only photopatch testing yielded abnormal results. Diagnosis of photosensitivity due to thiazides requires a high degree of suspicion. Ideally, diagnosis should be confirmed by a photobiological study

Survey of Australian equine veterinarians evaluating their biosecurity training and perceptions and opinions about the management of the 2007 equine influenza outbreak.

OBJECTIVES: To evaluate the level of biosecurity training among Australian equine veterinarians and to assess their perceptions of biosecurity and infectious disease risk and their opinions about the management of the 2007 equine influenza (EI) outbreak. DESIGN: Cross-sectional study. METHODS: A survey was conducted among equine veterinarians attending the 2010 annual conference of the Equine Veterinarians Australia (EVA) in New South Wales, Australia. Data were collected using a self-completed questionnaire and analysed using Fisher's exact tests to assess veterinarians' levels of biosecurity training, their perceptions of infectious disease and views regarding the 2007 EI outbreak management. RESULTS: A total of 46 of the 196 (23.5%) attending veterinarians completed the questionnaire. Significantly greater proportions of recently graduated veterinarians received theoretical and practical biosecurity training at veterinary schools than their older counterparts. The majority of respondents considered their likelihood of spreading infectious diseases from one client's horse to another to be low (84%). More than half (58%) of the veterinarians considered that hand-washing/wearing gloves was very effective in preventing disease spread. However, around one-quarter (27%) reported a degree of reservation about the practicality of performing general biosecurity practices in everyday working life. Overall, veterinarians were satisfied with the EI outbreak response, but had mixed opinions about the control measures and communications used. CONCLUSION: Levels of biosecurity training and the frequency of biosecurity advice provided by veterinarians have increased over time, although the practicality of biosecurity practices is a concern for some veterinarians. Further investigations of the barriers to the use of various biosecurity practices are required in order to inform training programs.

Pathogen presence in feral pigs and their movement around two commercial piggeries in Queensland, Australia.

Feral pigs are wild animal reservoirs of infectious pathogens transmissible to other species, all of which are transmissible to domestic pigs. The objective of this study was to detect the presence of harmful production-limiting pathogens; Brucella suis, Leptospira species, Lawsonia intracellularis, Mycoplasma hyopneumoniae and Actinobacillus pleuropneumoniae in a feral pig population within a 10 km radius of two large-scale commercial piggeries in Southern Queensland, Australia. The movement pattern of six pigs within the feral population was also investigated using geographic positioning system collars. All pathogens were present in the feral pig population except for A pleuropneumoniae. The true seroprevalence (TP) from 83 serum samples was 10.5 per cent for B suis, 48.6 per cent for Leptospira species, 100 per cent for L intracellularis and 42.1 per cent for M hyopneumoniae. Of 72 lung samples, 27.6 per cent were positive for M hyopneumoniae. Serum samples from 86 domestic sows within the study region were positive for Leptospira species (TP 2.1 per cent), L intracellularis (TP 100 per cent) and M hyopneumoniae (TP 100 per cent). The majority of feral pig movement was within 5 km of the piggeries, with one approaching to 100 m of the free-range piggery. The presence of pathogens in feral pigs in such close proximity to commercial piggeries could pose a biosecurity risk.

Controlling equine influenza: policy networks and decision-making during the 2007 Australian equine influenza outbreak.

Rapid, evidence-based decision-making is critical during a disease outbreak response; however, compliance by stakeholders is necessary to ensure that such decisions are effective - especially if the response depends on voluntary action. This mixed method study evaluated technical policy decision-making processes during the 2007 outbreak of equine influenza in Australia by identifying and analysing the stakeholder network involved and the factors driving policy decision-making. The study started with a review of the outbreak literature and published policy documents. This identified six policy issues regarding policy modifications or differing interpretations by different state agencies. Data on factors influencing the decision-making process for these six issues and on stakeholder interaction were collected using a pre-tested, semi-structured questionnaire. Face-to-face interviews were conducted with 24 individuals representing 12 industry and government organizations. Quantitative data were analysed using social network analysis. Qualitative data were coded and patterns matched to test a pre-determined general theory using a method called theory-oriented process-tracing. Results revealed that technical policy decisions were framed by social, political, financial, strategic and operational considerations. Industry stakeholders had influence through formal pre-existing channels, yet specific gaps in stakeholder interaction were overcome by reactive alliances formed during the outbreak response but outside the established system. Overall, the crisis management system and response were seen as positive, and 75-100% of individuals interviewed were supportive of, had interest in and considered the outcome as good for the majority of policy decisions, yet only 46-75% of those interviewed considered that they had influence on these decisions. Training to increase awareness and knowledge of emergency animal diseases (EADs) and response systems will improve stakeholder participation in emergency disease management and preparedness for future EAD incursions.